Challenging the Conventional; A Critical Reassessment of Jewish History Before the Muslim Conquests

Jewish history is not merely a chronicle of events. From their ancient roots in the Near East to their interactions with powerful empires such as the Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, the Jewish narrative is one of rebellion and the avoidance to mix with other nations and religions. This article delves into the historical evolution of Jewish people, particularly focusing on their experiences leading up to the Muslim conquests. The significance of this study lies in its potential to illuminate the complexities of Jewish history, which is often oversimplified or misrepresented in various narratives. By examining the historical context and the relationships between Jews and other cultures, we can better understand the socio-political dynamics that continue to influence the Middle East today. The article addresses the prevalent issue of victimhood in Jewish history, which is frequently portrayed without sufficient evidence from external sources. Ultimately, this exploration seeks to foster a deeper understanding of Jewish people’s historical journey and its implications for contemporary interfaith relations.

A Review of Jewish History: Defining Encounters with Historical Events

The most important point about reviewing and studying Jewish history is that most of the sources documenting various era of its history are the sources attributed to Jews themselves, written by their own authors and historians. Surprisingly, we can rarely find accurate and reliable information about Jewish history in credible sources from other religions and nations; in fact, there are no external sources for research and study outside their own. Perhaps the anti-Israeli book “The Invention of the Jewish People” by Shlomo Sand, an Israeli author from Tel Aviv University, could greatly assist us to address the issue. The important point is that we do not aim to deny or refute everything written about Jewish history, but a significant portion of this information, which often portrays Jews as an oppressed, displaced, constantly on exile, and persecuted people, is seriously in doubt. This is because other credible sources do not witness these events with such quality; for instance, if the Romans suppressed Jews after their rebellion, killing some and exiling others, we cannot see the exact reasons and numbers in Jewish history. This is because there has been a great deal of exaggeration and hyperbole for the sake of victimization and eliciting sympathy in Jewish sources. Or, without mentioning the details of the events or the reasons for their suppression by other governments, they have written about their deaths, dispersal, and exile because in many cases, the causes of their suffering throughout history were due to their own greed and disobedience. In previous articles, we reviewed the history of Jewish people up to the rule of the Persians over Jews, and now it is time to examine the entry of the Greeks into the Holy Land and their rule over Jews. Historical events of these periods are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Greek Rule Over Jews

In reviewing Jewish history, we see that after the Babylonians and Persians, Jews came under the control of the Greeks. Initially, the Greeks did not interfere with the religion and customs of Jews, but they transferred their richer culture and civilization to Palestine. This culture penetrated Jews to such an extent that they began to choose Greek names for their children [1]. Jews, who always avoided mixing with other people and nations, showed great flexibility toward Greek culture and its people. Gradually, Jewish people adopted a Greek lifestyle, and even intermarriage occurred [2]. However, this was completely at odds with the beliefs and prejudices of Jewish clergy and biased people, which led to their massive irritation [3]. Art, dance, music, and nudity were prevalent in Greek culture [4]. Over time, this culture not only contaminated Jews but also infiltrated their sacred places. For example, Greeks placed obscene paintings, images, and statues in Jewish holy places. It reached a point where, after a while, they even forbade Jews to worship in their temples, and they wanted to turn the Temple of Jerusalem into the “Temple of Zeus.” The era when Greek culture dominated much of the world is called the “Hellenistic Period.” This culture spread after the conquests of Alexander the Great and his extensive campaigns. Jewish history was not exempt from this influence, but some biased Jews could not accept this culture and its influence. Ultimately, during this period of Jewish history, Jews rebelled against Hellenistic influence in Jerusalem. The Greeks suppressed them and imposed more pressure on them as punishment, enacting laws against their customs; for example, they abolished the sacred Jewish Sabbath and banned the circumcision of babies by Jews. The conflict escalated, and religious Jews, known as the “Hasidim; the Pious,” stood against Hellenists. However, during this period in the history of Jewish people, there were also disagreements among Jews themselves. The younger generation and some of the elders had become intertwined with Greek culture, were fond of it, and defended it, while traditional Jews strongly opposed it. Eventually, another uprising began by Jews, leading to a series of long wars. This uprising of religious Jews against the Greek Seleucids is called the “Maccabean Revolt” [5]. To everyone’s surprise, Jews defeated the Greeks, threw out all their symbols from the temple, and reinstated their own customs. This victory was so precious to them that they still call this event “Hanukkah” and celebrate it for eight days. Although this event marked the beginning of Jewish rule over Palestine, throughout the decades that this rule continued, there was intense conflict and strife between the defenders of Hellenism and its opponents in Palestine. These internal conflicts led to wars between them, resulting in thousands of deaths, but the power of traditional and religious Jews remained stronger. This period of Jewish rule was their first religious government in Jewish history, as power was in the hands of religious rulers.

Roman Rule over Jews

During this period, the world witnessed the rise of one of the most highlighted and powerful empires in history, the Roman Empire. They managed to defeat the Greeks, reach the gates of the Middle East, and conquer many lands, including Palestine. After the conquest of Jewish lands and for about two centuries thereafter, sometimes the Romans themselves directly ruled over Jews, and sometimes they chose a Jew to govern under Roman supervision. During these centuries, Jewish customs and rituals continued, and the Romans did not interfere in them. However, throughout most of history, Jews generally have not been good subordinates and have not acknowledge their patron. When any government showed them favor and gave them religious and ruling freedom, their response was to become more audacious, rebel, and declare independence. The same scenario got repeated in the relationship between Jews and the Romans, and over time, the sense of independence and the dream of turning Jerusalem into the Promised Land became more pronounced among them.

 Jewish-Roman Wars

Jews were looking for an opportunity to revolt against the Romans, and the governor of Jerusalem provided the pretext. He decided to tax wealthy temples and priests. They refused to comply and stirred up the religious fervor of the people. Jerusalem, which had been rebuilt and had strong walls, became a good spot for the Jewish revolt. The Romans waited outside the closed gates of the city for months. Infuriated by this, they took harsh revenge on rebellious Jews. During this period, the Romans destroyed the Temple of Solomon for the second time in Jewish history. After its destruction, only the Wailing Wall/ Western Wall remained out of it. Many people were killed, and some were taken captive.

After the incident, the Romans rebuilt Jerusalem in their own style, placing their sacred deities in temples and even renaming the city “Aelia Capitolina.” In narrations about the apocalyptic events from the Household of Prophet Muhammed (Peace be upon them), it is mentioned that the apocalyptic events will occur in Aelia, and Iranians will arrive there [6]. Although the incident was the result of Jews’ own audacity and disobedience to their rulers, the consequences of this defeat were very severe for them. They were upset by the deaths of their brethren (fellow Jews) and angered by the destruction of their temple, especially since Roman temples were being constructed on the site of the Temple of Solomon before their eyes, and they were not allowed to practice their religion, as they were considered dangerous rebels against the Roman Empire. These issues made to become a dormant threat that reignited a few years later, leading to a decisive war. The last of the three Jewish wars against the Romans is known as the “Bar Kokhba revolt.” This war exhausted the Romans’ patience and led to a brutal attack on Jews. Jewish texts state that eight members of the Jewish main council and two rabbis were killed in this war, and they are remembered as the ten holy martyrs in Jewish history. Jewish sources provide some very strange and unbelievable statistics regarding the number of people killed, exiled and captured; this article does not address these issues because Zionists consistently employ fabricated narratives of victimization and history to justify their actions in Palestine and legitimize their aggressive conquests. Moreover, apart from Jewish sources, no other sources have recorded these events, and other sources have also relied on Jewish sources without providing any confirmation. The Romans changed the name of the Jewish land to “Palestine,” taking it from the name of the “Philistines,” who were the first inhabitants of Jerusalem. In Jewish history, with the destruction of Jerusalem, Judaism changed from a serious and social religion to a minor and unofficial one. The magnificent temple was gone, and only a limited number of people gathered in synagogues to worship. Another significant change was that, following this event, the notion of returning to Jerusalem diminished among most Jews, as Jerusalem no longer existed in its former state. It is worth noting that Jews believe that the first destruction of the Temple of Solomon in 586 BC, its second destruction in 70 AD, and their final defeat by the Romans in 133 AD, all occurred on the ninth day of the Hebrew month of Av. This day is the most ominous day in Jewish history, when Jews deeply mourn, fast, do not use perfumes, do not bathe, and mourn for Jerusalem.

A Key Element for Jewish Survival During the Roman Wars

Jews have consistently managed to maintain their status despite facing various pressures in each phase of their history, regardless of the society, beliefs, or levels of oppression. This is notable, considering the destruction of Jerusalem and their temple, and the restrictions they faced in practicing their religion. A key question is: How did Judaism survive under these conditions? During the first war between Jews and the Romans, when Jerusalem was under Roman siege, a Jewish commander named Yohanan ben Zakkai surrendered to the Romans. He negotiated a deal with the Roman commander, requesting permission to establish a center for Jews outside of Jerusalem. At that time, Jews viewed ben Zakkai negatively and accused him of betrayal. However, the school he established for teaching Judaism became the foundation of the Jewish seminary or “yeshiva,” and other yeshivas were also established in different locations. It is no exaggeration to say that no one served Judaism and kept it alive as ben Zakkai did. He quietly and steadily completed his work, trained Zionist clergy, and rebuilt Zionism after its complete destruction.

The Condition of Jews after the Roman Conversion to Christianity

Years after the birth of Jesus Christ, the Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. Constantine’s Christianity sparked a major revolution in Europe and he gained popularity day by day. Under such conditions, the situation for Jews became more difficult, as Christians became fervent avengers of Jesus. They believed that the blood of Jesus was on Jews’ hands and that they were murderers who had to pay. The situation became complicated, and Roman leaders declared that Jews must convert to Christianity and repent. Overall, European countries’ views of Jews, who had previously migrated there and lived there, became negative. Before the widespread adoption of Christianity in Europe, when the Romans defeated Jews in Jerusalem, they built a temple named “Jupiter” for their gods. After the Roman emperor converted to Christianity, some were sent to Jerusalem to find the tomb of Jesus. After a long quest, they found the tomb in the same Jupiter temple and built the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. This made Jerusalem even more religiously important. During this time, Jerusalem was under Christian control, but Jews were not completely banned from entering the city. For several hundred years after their defeat by the Romans, Jews faced intense pressure from the Church, except for a fifteen-year period when Jerusalem was under Iranian control. During the war between the Romans and Khosrow II of the Sassanid Empire, Jews allied with Iran, due to their fond memories of the Achaemenids. They were able to conquer Jerusalem and rule it for fifteen years. In 629, the Romans attacked Jerusalem, conquered it, and Jerusalem once again became a Christian stronghold.

The Influence of Islam’s Emergence on Jewish Communities and the Formation of the Religious Triangle in Jerusalem

After the rise of Islam, the Byzantine Empire was defeated by the Islamic army during the reign of the second Caliph, and Jerusalem fell under Muslim control for about 500 years. Umar ibn al-Khattab had a peaceful relationship with Jews until the Christian Crusaders recaptured Jerusalem. Jerusalem repeatedly fell from Christian control to Muslim control over the next 150 years until Christians were finally defeated by Saladin, and Jerusalem came under Muslim control. The conquest of Jerusalem marked the beginning of the rapid expansion of Muslims into the city. The Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem was the first qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims before the Kaaba. Some believe its name is mentioned in the Quran, but interpreters have differing opinions on the specific verse. It is significant to note that Al-Aqsa Mosque is built directly on the ruins of Solomon’s Temple, and the Western Wall of Jews is the western wall of Al-Aqsa Mosque. In the center of this area, collectively known as Al-Aqsa Mosque, there is a mosque called the Dome of the Rock. Unlike other mosques, it is hexagonal and has a golden dome, which is a symbol of Jerusalem. This rock or mosque is sacred to followers of the three religions: Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Muslims believe that Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him and his family) ascended to Heaven from this place and tied his horse Buraq to the Western Wall. According to Jewish history, Jews believe that this place was the starting point of the world, and the Earth began to be created from this point. They believe that Jerusalem is the center of the Earth, Solomon’s Temple is the center of Jerusalem, and this rock is the center of Solomon’s Temple and the center of the world. Jewish history states that Jews believe that Prophet Solomon placed the Ark of the Covenant under this rock. The conflict between Jews and Muslims is due to Jews’ desire to excavate under the Wailing Wall and its surrounding area to extract the remains of Solomon’s Temple. They want to rebuild Solomon’s Temple for the third time, but today, sacred sites such as Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock Mosque exist in the area of Solomon’s Temple, making this practically impossible. On the other hand, the most important holy site for Jews and Muslims is located in the eastern part of Jerusalem. In contrast, the holiest part of the Earth for Christians, the Tomb of Jesus, is in the western part of Jerusalem. They believe that when Israelites decided to kill Jesus, they placed the cross on his shoulders and led him along a path known as the “Way of Suffering,” subjecting him to many hardships to the spot they crucified him. This “Way of Suffering” is very sacred to Christians, who walk and worship along it. Today, this path passes through the Muslim quarter of Jerusalem and ends at the holiest place in the world for Christians, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, where the tomb of Jesus is located in the basement. This city has become a serious battleground between the followers of the three major religions in the world. These circumstances are a major contributing factor to the hostility between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In future articles on Jewish history, the distortion of Christianity by Jews and their influence on the Catholic Church will be discussed.

Fig. 1. Historical Period and Main Events

Conclusion

This article explored Jewish journey through various empires, highlighting the complexities of their interactions with different cultures. In examining Jewish history, it is crucial to recognize the predominantly self-authored nature of its primary sources, which often creates a lack of external perspectives. Many portrayals of perpetual oppression and persecution warrant scrutiny due to the absence of corroborating evidence from other credible sources. Jewish sources often omit or distort the causes of their suffering, necessitating a critical review of their history. The historical relationship between Jews and the Romans exemplifies this complexity, revealing a pattern of rebellion for independence and disloyalty to those who favored them. A rigorous analysis of historical texts and diverse perspectives is essential for a more nuanced understanding of Jewish history. Such scholarly engagement provides a critical framework for navigating the complexities of contemporary issues in the Middle East, particularly in evaluating the historical motivations underpinning the occupation of Palestine.

References

[1]. Hengel, Martin. Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in their Encounter in Palestine during the Early Hellenistic Period. Translated by John Bowden. SCM Press. (1947): vol. 2.

[2]. Miller, William McElwee. History of the Ancient Church in the Roman Empire and Iran. Cornell University: Chapkhana August Press, 1931.

[3]. M. Scholer, David. The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.

[4]. The Bible, 2 Maccabees, 1:58-59; Durant, Will. The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster, 1975.

[5]. H. Werlin, Steven. “The Maccabean Revolt: Between Tradition and History.” Society of Biblical Literature.

[6]. al-Tirmidhi, Muhammad ibn Isa. Al-Jami’ al-Sahih (Sunan al-Tirmidhi). Qahira: Dar al-Hadith. (1998): vol. 4, p. 531; At-Tirmidhi, Muhammad Ibn Isa Ibn Surah. Jami At-Tirmidhi. USA: Darussalam, 2007.